Biography of Marcus Garvey

On August 17, 1887, Marcus Garvey was born in the town of St. Ann's Bay, on the northern coast of Jamaica. 10 At the age of fourteen, family financial difficulties forced Garvey to forfeit his education and go to work. 11 "He worked as a printer in Kingston until he was twenty, then he advanced to become a master printer at P.A. Benjamin Company. Due to natural disasters, much of Kingston was destroyed, causing the wages and purchasing power of the workers to be low. As a result, the Printers' Union struck for higher wages and elected Garvey to lead the strike. His experience in the strike had emphasized the need of organized action to improve the lot of the black worker. Garvey soon realized that any effective program improving the lot of black workers would demand his full-time attention and more money than he had any immediate prospects of obtaining in Jamaica." 12 .

Seeking to improve the condition of the Negro in Jamaica and other parts of the British empire, Garvey travelled to London. Later, in the summer of 1914, Garvey quickly returned to his home in Jamaica, "his head spinning with big plans for a program of race redemption. Garvey recalled that 'My brain was afire,' as he began envisioning the possibility of 'uniting all the Negro people of the world into one great body to establish a country and Government absolutely theirown.' Garvey was 'determined that the black man would not continue to be kicked about by all the other races and nations of the world,' and he had a remarkable vision of 'a new world of black men, not peons, serfs, dogs and slaves, but a nation of sturdy men making their impress upon civilization and causing a new light to be drawn upon the human race.' 13

Formation of the UNIA-ACL

This vision led Garvey in August 1914 to establish the Universal Negro Improvement and Conservation Association and African Communities League , whose stated interest was in the unification of the Negro race. Its manifesto warned of "the universal disunity existing among the people of the Negro or African race," and called upon "all people of Negro or African parentage" to join in a great crusade to rehabiliate the race. 14 Thus, sociologists Bainbridge and Stark's psychopathology model and entrepreneurship model best explain the formation of the UNIA. According to the psychopathology model, the UNIA movement was a result of a Garvey hallucination epsiode, one in which his "brain was afire." In addition, it can also be explained through the entrepreneurship model because the UNIA serves a business whose ultimate product is race redemption and a unified African nation-state. 15

In the spring of 1915, Garvey sought the support of his program from American Negroes. 16 In 1916, Garvey Negroes that were excluded and culturally isolated from the larger white world, but alsoa significant percentage of West Indians who were isolated from the native American Negro population. Because of his ties as a West Indian, Garvey directed his focus to this group for his organization's establishment. "Seeking support in this direction, Garvey's plan for an industrial school made a favorable impression and he enjoyed the respectful attention of his listeners. However, his vision of an international organization working for the redemption of Africa was greeted with hoots of derision. In spite of these discourgaring aspects of this initial meeting, Garvey went ahead with his organizational plans and in 1917 established the New York division of the Universal Negro Improvement Assocation." 17

Within a period of two months, Garvey built up his organization claiming to have a membership of 1,500 members. A schismatic, splintering of the UNIA-ACL occured when some Negro politicians sought control of the association and attempted to turn the movement into a political club. At this juncture, Garvey wasasked to assume leadership of the Harlem UNIA-ACL division by thirteen of the loyal members. Accepting this request, Garvey quickly became the elected president general of the New York UNIA. Shortly after,Garvey sought to prevent the splintering faction from using the UNIA-ACL name by quick reogranization and incorporation as a membership corporation under New York state law. The association pledged itself, under the New York charter, "to promote and practice the principles of benevolence" and described its purpose as "the protection and social intercourse of its members." 18

Growth of UNIA-ACL

The UNIA-ACL experienced very significant growth during the 1919 and 1920. This was in part due toGarvey's travels throughout the United States and his establishment of UNIA- branches in urban, heavily Negro populated areas.Moreover, Garvey sought to interest Black West Indians and Black Central Americans in the UNIA-ACL movement's ideals as well. 19 At the peak of the movement, nightly meetings were held in Liberty Hall (the New York UNIA headquarters). Capacity audiences thronged to listen to the compelling words and ideas of Marcus Garvey. Besides speeches and meetings, the UNIA also incorporated Garvey's Black Star Line idea, whose stated purpose was to be an all- Negro steamship company that would connect the Blacks of the Diaspora in commercial and industrial relationships. 20 .

While the incorporation, implementation, and later failure of the Black Star Line took place, the Universal Negro Improvement Association continued to operate on a business basis. "Its membership was required to pay monthly dues of thirty-five cents, of which ten cents went to the parent organization headed by Garvey and twenty-five cents remained with the local division. The U.N.I.A. was being modeled after other fraternal orders in that its active membership was entitled to draw sickness and death benefits from the organization." The purpose, according to Garvey's widow, was to easily reach "the common man, who wanted security in his distress; hand him this first, then tell him of the spiritual, racial benefits that would come in time." 21

During the 1920s, rapid growth in the American UNIA membership and branches occured. However, upon his conviction of mail fraud, Garvey was deported back to Jamaica where he decided to work for race redemption among his Black Jamaican people. 22 In 1929, the Parent Body of the Universal Negro Improvement Association, a new legal organization wasestablished by Marcus Garvey because he refused to have the UNIA home office remain in New York, the place of the association's founding, the greatest number of members, and the greatest financial strength.Removed from his greatest member and financial support, American Blacks, Marcus Garvey ardently worked forthe survival and improvement of the UNIA divisions, but saw that his movement was weakening. 23

Decline of the UNIA

In June 1940, after arduous work in Jamaica for the Parent Body of the UNIA, founder Marcus Garvey dies of a fatal heart attack.

Following his death,James R. Stewart served as the acting President-General and became the Second President-General of theUNIA-ACL. Following him, William Levon Sherrill was elected as the Second President-General of the UNIA-ACL. The next elected president was Thomas W. Harvey. The fifth and sixth President-Generals following Thomas Harvey were Dr. Charles Lynell James and Reginald Wesley Maddox. In August 1992, the legacy continued with theelection of Marcus Garvey, Jr. as the Seventh President-General of the UNIA-ACL. 24

While the controversies and original goals of the UNIA have been diminished, the UNIA has modernized with respect to its leaders and the times. For instance, the most recent accomplishment of the UNIA-ACL, modeling after the hundreds of religious movements thathave recently begun or developed over the Internet, was the launching of the online UNIA-ACL website in 1998. 25 The website's purpose is to disseminate information, history, beliefs, etc. of the group to interested parties and current members. It is unclear if this is an attempt to renew public interest in the organization or to counter negative characterizations that have been imposed onto the UNIA. However, it is clear that the controversies that once loomed this organization no longer exist, and the function of the UNIA has remained relatively unchanged since the death of founder Marcus Garvey.

The beliefs, ideologies, and doctrines of the UNIA collectively express their desire to unite the Negro race, ensure its purity, and establish a republic in which those displaced in the African Diaspora could live in unity. To begin with, the "Beliefs of the UNIA," "General Objects of UNIA-ACL," and motto were all written by Marcus Garvey. In addition, the Declaration of Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World as well as the UNIA Assertion on the Condition of the Negro were written in consultation by members of the UNIA at their historic conventions.

Beliefs of the UNIA

"The Universal Negro Improvement Association advocated the uniting and blending of all Negroes into one strong, healthy race. It is against miscegenation and race suicide.

It believes that the Negro race is as good as any other, and therefore should be as proud of itself as others are.

It believes in the purity of the Negro race and the purity of the white race.

It is against rich blacks marrying poor whites.

It is against rich or poor whites taking advantage of Negro women.

It believes in the spiritual Fatherhood of God and the Brotherhood of Man.

It believes in the social and political physical separation of all peoples to the extent that they promote their own ideals and civilization, with the privilege of trading and doing business with each other. It believes in the promotion of a strong and powerful Negro nation in Africa.

It believes in the rights of all men." 26

General Objects of UNIA-ACL

Immediately after organizing the Negro Improvement Society on August 1, 1914, which later became the UNIA, Garvey established its general and fundamental objects:

"To establish a Universal Confraternity among the race;

to promote the spirit of pride and love;

to reclaim the fallen;

to administer to and assist the needy;

to assist in civilizing the backward tribes of Africa;

to assist in the development of Independent Negro Nations and Communities;

to establish a central nation for the race; to establish Commissaries or Agencies in the principal countries and cities of the world for the representation of all Negroes;

to promote a conscientious Christian worship among the native tribes of Africa;

to establish Universities, Colleges, Academies and Schools for the racial education and culutre of the boys and girls of the race;

to conduct a world-wide commercial and industrial intercourse; and

to work for better conditions among Negroes everywhere." 27

Motto

The official motto of the Universal Negro Improvement Association is:

"One Aim! One God! One Destiny!" 28

The Universal Assertion on the Condition of the Negro

The Universal Negro Improvement Association asserts that "Negroes are universally oppressed. Negroes the world over are the victims of prejudice and injustice. Under every government they are unfairly treated, yet are expected to give the same loyalty as other citizens. The Universal Negro Improvement Association believes that petitions and prayers will never help. It believes that Jim Crow cars, disfranchisement, lynching, and burning will prevail so long as Negroes have no united power, no united voice, no economic background to support that voice. It seeks to unite four hundred million Negroes into one solid political body. As Africa is the native habitat of the Negro, the U.N.I.A. has as its ultimate object the redemption of Africa, where a government of the Negroes, by the Negroes, for the Negroes may be set up." 31

Beliefs in an Independent African Nation

The improvement of the condition of the Black race, with the idea of creating an African republic, developed by Negroes, was the most essential belief behind the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League. The nation- state building was to be done "without creating the hatred and animosity that now exist in countries of white race through Negroes rivaling them for the highest and best positions in government, politics, society, and industry. The organization believes in the rights of all men, yellow, white, and black. To the UNIA, the white race has a right to the peaceful possession and occupation of countries of its own and in like manner the yellow and black races have their rights. 29 The UNIA believes that there is room enough in the world for the various race groups to grow and develop by themselves without seeking to destroy the Creator's plan by the constant introudction of mongrel types." 30

Declaration of Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World

The UNIA's beliefs in the rights of the Negro are expressed in the Declaration of Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World. It first affirms their beliefs and then appeals for redress to their greivances:

"Be it Resolved, That the Negro people of the world, through their chosen representatives in convention assembled in Liberty Hall, in the City of New York and United States of America, from August 1 to August 31, in the year of our Lord, one thousand nine hundred and twenty, protest against the wrongs and injustices they are suffering at the hands of their white brethren, and state what they deem their fair and just rights, as well as the treatment they propose to demand of all men in the future."

We complain:

"That nowhere in the world, with few exceptions, are black men accorded equal treatment with white men, although in the same situation and circumstances, but, on the contrary, are discriminated against and denied the common rights due to human beings for no other reason than their race and color."

"We are not willingly accepted as guests in the public hotels and inns of the world for no other reason than our race and color."

"In certain parts of the United States of America our race is denied the right of public trial accorded to other races when accused of crime, but are lynched and burned by mobs, and such brutal and inhuman treatment is even practised upon our women."

"That European nations have parcelled out among themselves and taken possession of nearly all of the continent of Africa, and the natives are compelled to surrender their lands to aliens and are treated in most instances like slaves."

"In the southern portion of the United States of America, although citizens under the Federal Constitution, and in some states almost equal to the whites in population and are qualified land owners and taxpayers, we are, nevertheless, denied all voice in the making and administration of the laws and are taxed without representation by the state governments, and at the same time compelled to do military service in defense of the country."

"On the public conveyances and common carriers in the Southern portion of the United States we are jim-crowed and compelled to accept separate and inferior accommodations and made to pay the same fare charged for first-class accommodations, and our families are often humiliated and insulted by drunken white men who habitually pass through the jim-crow cars going to the smoking car."

"The physicians of our race are denied the right to attend their patients while in the public hospitals of the cities and states where they reside in certain parts of the United States."

"Our children are forced to attend inferior separate schools for shorter terms than white children, and the public school funds are unequally divided between the white and colored schools."

"We are discriminated against and denied an equal chance to earn wages for the support of our families, and in many instances are refused admission into labor unions, and nearly everywhere are paid smaller wages than white men."

"In Civil Service and departmental offices we are everywhere discriminated against and made to feel that to be a black man in Europe, America and the West Indies is equivalent to being an outcast and a leper among the races of men, no matter what the character and attainments of the black man may be."

"In the British and other West Indian Islands and colonies, Negroes are secretly and cunningly discriminated against, and denied those fuller rights in government to which white citizens are appointed, nominated and elected."

"That our people in those parts are forced to work for lower wages than the average standard of white men and are kept in conditions repugnant to good civilized tastes and customs."

"That the many acts of injustice against members of our race before the courts of law in the respective islands and colonies are of such nature as to create disgust and disrespect for the white man's sense of justice."

"Against all such inhuman, unchristian and uncivilized treatment we here and now emphatically protest, and invoke the condemnation of all mankind."

"In order to encourage our race all over the world and to stimulate it to a higher and grander destiny, we demand and insist on the following Declaration of Rights:

"Be it known to all men that whereas, all men are created equal and entitled to the rights of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness, and because of this we, the duly elected representatives of the Negro peoples of the world, invoking the aid of the just and Almighty God do declare all men, women and children of our blood throughout the world free citizens, and do claim them as free citizens of Africa, the Motherland of all Negroes."

"That we believe in the supreme authority and given to man as a common possession; that there should be an equitable distribution and apportionment of all such things, and in consideration of the fact that as a race we are now deprived of those things that are morally and legally ours, we believe it right that all such things should be acquired and held by whatsoever means possible.

"That we believe the Negro, like any other race, should be governed by the ethics of civilization, and therefore, should not be deprived of any of those rights or privileges common to other human beings."

"We declare that Negroes wheresoever they form a community among themselves, should be given the right to elect their own representatives to represent them in legislatures, courts of law, or such institutions as may exercise control over that particular community."

"We assert that the Negro is entitled to even-handed justice before all courts of law and equity in whatever country he may be found, and when this is denied him on account of his race or color such denial is an insult to the race as a whole and should be resented by the entire body of Negroes."

"We declare it unfair and prejudicial to the rights of Negroes in communities where they exist in considerable numbers to be tried by a judge and jury composed entirely of an alien race, but in all such cases members of our race are entitled to representation on the jury."

"We believe that any law or practice that tends to deprive any African of his land or the privileges of free citizenship within his country is unjust and immoral, and no native should respect any such law or practice."

"We declare taxation without representation unjust and tyrannous, and there should be no obligation on the part of the Negro to obey the levy of a tax by any law-making body from which he is excluded and denied representation on account of his race and color."

"We believe that any law especially directed against the Negro to his detriment and singling him out because of his race or color is unfair and immoral, and should not be respected."

"We believe all men entitled to common human respect, and that our race should in no way tolerate any insults that may be interpreted to mean disrespect to our color."

"We deprecate the use of the term 'nigger' as applied to Negroes, and demand that the word 'Negro' be written with a capital 'N.'"

"We believe that the Negro should adopt every means to protect himself against barbarous practices inflicted upon him because of color."

"We believe in the freedom of Africa for the Negro people of the world, and by the principle of Europe for the Europeans and Asia for the Asiatics; we also demand Africa for the Africans at home and abroad."

"We believe in the inherent right of the Negro to possess himself of Africa, and that his possession of same shall not be regarded as an infringement on any claim or purchase made by any race or nation."

"We strongly condemn the cupidity of those nations of the world who, by open aggression or secret schemes, have seized the territories and inexhaustible natural wealth of Africa, and we place on record our most solemn determination to reclaim the treasures and possession of the vast continent of our forefathers."

"We believe all men should live in peace one with the other, but when races and nations provoke the ire of other races and nations by attempting to infringe upon their rights, war becomes inevitable, and the attempt in any way to free one's self or protect one's rights or heritage becomes justifiable.

"Whereas, the lynching, by burning, hanging or any other disgrace to civilization, we therefore declare any country guilty of such atrocities outside the pale of civilization."

"We protest against the atrocious crime of whipping, flogging and overworking of the native tribes of Africa and Negroes everywhere. These are methods that should be abolished, and all means should be taken to prevent a continuance of such brutal practices."

"We protest against the atrocious practice of shaving the heads of Africans, especially of African women or individuals of Negro blood, when placed in prison as a punishment for crime by an alien race."

"We protest against segregated districts, separate public conveyances, industrial discrimination, lynchings and limitations of political privileges of any Negro citizen in any part of the world on account of race, color or creed, and will exert our full influence and power against all such."

"We protest against any punishment inflicted upon a Negro with severity, as against lighter punishment inflicted upon another of an alien race for like offense, as an act of prejudice and injustice, and should be resented by the entire race."

"We protest against the system of education in any country where Negroes are denied the same privileges and advantages as other races."

"We declare it inhuman and unfair to boycott Negroes from industries and labor in any part of the world."

"We believe in the doctrine of the freedom of the press, and we therefore emphatically protest against the suppression of Negro newspapers and periodicals in various parts of the world, and call upon Negroes everywhere to employ all available means to prevent such suppression."

"We further demand free speech universally for all men."

"We hereby protest against the publication of scandalous and inflammatory articles by an alien press tending to create racial strife and the exhibition of picture films showing the Negro as a cannibal."

"We believe in the self-determination of all peoples."

"We declare for the freedom of religious worship."

"With the help of Almighty God, we declare ourselves the sworn protectors of the honor and virtue of our women and children, and pledge our lives for their protection and defense everywhere, and under all circumstances from wrongs and outrages."

"We demand the right of unlimited and unprejudiced education for ourselves and our posterity forever."

"We declare that the teaching in any school by alien teachers to our boys and girls, that the alien race is superior to the Negro race, is an insult to the Negro people of the world."

"Where Negroes form a part of the citizenry of any country, and pass the civil service examination of such country, we declare them entitled to the same consideration as other citizens as to appointments in such civil service."

"We vigorously protest against the increasingly unfair and unjust treatment accorded Negro travelers on land and sea by the agents and employees of railroad and steamship companies and insist that for equal fare we receive equal privileges with travelers of other races."

"We declare it unjust for any country, State or nation to enact laws tending to hinder and obstruct the free immigration of Negroes on account of their race and color."

"That the right of the Negro to travel unmolested throughout the world be not abridged by any person or persons, and all Negroes are called upon to give aid to a fellow Negro when thus molested."

"We declare that all Negroes are entitled to the same right to travel over the world as other men."

"We hereby demand that the governments of the world recognize our leader and his representatives chosen by the race to look after the welfare of our people under such governments."

"We demand complete control of our social institutions without interference by any alien race or races."

"That the colors, Red, Black and Green, be the colors of the Negro race."

Resolved, That the anthem 'Ethiopia, Thou Land of Our Fathers', etc., shall be the anthem of the Negro race. The Universal Ethiopian Anthem

"We believe that any limited liberty which deprives one of the complete rights and prerogatives of full citizenship is but a modified form of slavery."

"We declare it an injustice to our people and a serious impediment to the health of the race to deny to competent licensed Negro physicians the right to practise in the public hospitals of the communities in which they reside, for no other reason than their race and color."

"We call upon the various governments of the world to accept and acknowledge Negro representatives who shall be sent to the said governments to represent the general welfare of the Negro peoples of the world."

"We deplore and protest against the practice of confining juvenile prisoners in prisons with adults, and we recommend that such youthful prisoners be taught gainful trades under humane supervision."

"Be it further resolved, that we as a race of people declare the League of Nations null and void as far as the Negro is concerned, in that it seeks to deprive Negroes of their liberty."

"We demand of all men to do unto us as we would do unto them, in the name of justice; and we cheerfully accord to all men all the rights we claim herein for ourselves."

"We declare that no Negro shall engage himself in battle for an alien race without first obtaining the consent of the leader of the Negro people of the world, except in a matter of national self-defense."

"We protest against the practice of drafting Negroes and sending them to war with alien forces without proper training, and demand in all cases that Negro soldiers be given the same training as the aliens."

"We demand that instructions given Negro children in schools include the subject of 'Negro History', to their benefit."

"We demand a free and unfettered commercial intercourse with all the Negro people of the world."

"We declare for the absolute freedom of the seas for all peoples."

"We demand that our duly accredited representatives be given proper recognition in all leagues, conferences, conventions or courts of international arbitration wherever human rights are discussed."

"We proclaim the 31st day of August of each year to be an international holiday to be observed by all Negroes."

"We want all men to know we shall maintain and contend for the freedom and equality of every man, woman and child of our race, with our lives, our fortunes and our sacred honor."

These rights we believe to be justly ours and proper for the protection of the Negro race at large, and because of this belief we, on behalf of the four hundred million Negroes of the world, do pledge herein the sacred blood of the race in defense, and we hereby subscribe our names as a guarantee of the truthfulness and faithfulness hereof in the presence of Almighty God, on the 13th day of August, in the year of our Lord one thousand nine hundred and twenty." 32

"There are a couple of rituals and practices that constituted the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League as a black civil religious movement. It sought to bind its inherents--all those men and women of African descent who proudly took the name Negro--into a collectivity which was divinely called to a special task in the world. The rituals of the UNIA were of a sufficiently high level of generality so that in assenting to them one could continue to adhere to particular doctrines and practices of the separate Black denominations; and one could still attend those churches on Sunday mornings while participatin in UNIA activities on Sunday evenings. These practices are the Universal Negro Ritual and the Universal Negro Catechism" . 33

Universal Negro Ritual .

With a hundred and twenty-eight-pages, the full title of the Universal Negro Ritual is The Universal Negro Ritual containing Forms, Prayers, and Offices for use in the Universal Negro Improvement Associaton together with a Collection of Hymns Authorized by the High Executive Council Compiled by His Grace, Rev. Dr. George Alexander McGuire, Chaplain General Approved by His Excellency, Marcus Garvey, President and Provisional President of Africa . 34

The Order for Sunday Mass Meetings was the most widely used component of the Ritual. The first part was the processional hymn, "Shine On, Eternal Light," proceeded by the most commonly utilized intoned Biblical refrain: "Princes shall come out of Egypt; Ethiopia shall soon stretch out her hands unto God" (Pslams 68; the 31st verse). 35

The official opening hymn followed, whose purpose was to enlighten the truth of the Messiah to unredeemed Africa. 36

The official motto of the Association, "One God, One Aim, One Destiny," was recited after the opening hymn but before the Lord's prayer. 37

"Then came a remarkable series of prayers by the chaplain. The first prayer sought divine guidance in all UNIA undertakings, dedicating whatever was done to the greater glory of God. The second prayer made explicit the goal of universal brotherhood. The third prayer sought God's blessing on the Association, and especially upon its leadership, whose highest responsibility was conceived in terms of loyalty to the race. The next prayer was for the redemption of Africa, envisioining the great day when foreign exploiters would be expelled and Black men would once again rule their own destinies. The fifth prayer appealed for strength in overthrowing the enemy, who clearly is the white oppressor, who forced the descendants of Ham (African descendants) to bear the cross of slavery and oppression. The final prayer asked for God's guidance in all the workings of the UNIA, with a special request that it be saved from 'the great danger of unhappy divisions.'" 38

The reading of the Scriputres and the singing of the "Hymn of Prayer" followed the series of chaplain's prayers. 39

The last two orders of service contained in the Universal Negro Ritual were the "Baptism and Dedication of Infants" and "The Order for the Burial Serivce." During the process of Bapitsm and Dedication of Infants, infants were formally baptized as Christians and inducted as UNIA-ACL members. 40

Universal Negro Catchesim .

Because of its power to disseminate the purpose, theology, and history of the UNIA- ACLto both parents and children, the Catchesim was regarded as on of the most important practices of the UNIA-ACL. In 1920, George Alexander McGuire, then Chaplain-General of the UNIA created it, divided it into approximatelyfour equal sections specified for religious knowledge, historical knowledge, Constitution and Laws of the UNIA, and the Declaration of Independence of the UNIA. 41

"1. The first section, on religious knowledge, opened with an inquiry concerning the nature and the attributes of God. Having established that God is a spirit; that He is One, everlastin, omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent; and that He is addressed as "Father" by virture of having created all human beings "after His own imaee," the catechist inquired whether it was part of God's plan of creation to make some races of men superior to others, and if it was not, to what could the palpable differences be attributed. 42

"It also turned to the question of God's color. It insisted on the right of the Black man to make the man/God analogy out of his own existential framework. Simply, Marcus Garvey expressed a sentiment when he declared "od is not white or black...But if they [whites] say that God is white, this organization says that God is black." 43

"In addition, the Catechism was mainly concerned to emphasize Jesus' historic ties to Africa. 44

"2. The second section of the Catechism dealt with with historical knowledge by devoting considerable attention to the achievements of the ancient Ethiopian and Egyptian kingdoms." 45

3. The third section of the Catechism dealt with the history of the Universal Negro Improvement Association and consisted mainly of selections from the Constitution and Book of Laws of the UNIA. The Catechism explicity stated that divisions "shall admit none ot achieve membership who is not of African blood." 46

4. The final section of the Catechism dealt with the famous "Declaration of Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World" written by founder Marcus Garvey. 47

Anti-Communism

The racial ideology of Marcus Garvey made him hestitant of new political and economic thoughts that sought the uplift of the Black race along interracial class lines. "He suspected that white Socialists and Communists were at heart just as prejudiced against black people as were other whites, and he doubted that white trade unionists would willingly share their job opportunities and union benefits with black workers. According to Garvey, 'if I must advise the Negro workingman and laborer, I should warm him against the present brand of Communism...and to be careful of the traps of white trade unionism.' 48 ''The danger of Communism to the Negro, in countires where he forms the minority of the population, is seen in the selfish and vicious attempts of that party or group to use the Negro's vote and physical numbers in helping to smash and over-throw, by revolution, a system that is injurious to them as the white under dogs, the success of which would put their majority group or race still in power, not only as Communists but as whitemen. The Negro should keep shy of Communism or the Worker's Party in America. To me there is no difference between two roses looking alike, and smelling alike, even if some one calls them by different names...On the appeal of race interest the Communist is as ready as either to show his racial ascendancy or superiority of the Negro. 49 The Negro needs to be saved from his 'Friends,' and beware of 'Greeks bearing gifts.' The greatest enemies of the Negro are among those who hypocritically profess love and fellowship for him, when, in truth, and deep down in their hearts, they despise and hate him." 50

Anti- NAACP

While Marcus Garvey was establishing the Universal Negro Improvement Association, another racial organization, named the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, was being led by W.E.B. DuBois. According to Garvey, this "aggressive, social equality organization... declares vehemently for social and political equality, viz.: Negroes and whites in the same hotels, homes, residential districts, a Negro as president, members of the Cabinet, and leaders of society in the United States." But Garvey reasoned that "all these, as everybody knows, are the Negroes' constitutional rights, but reason dictates that the masses of the white race will never stand by the ascendency of an opposite minority group to the favored positions in a government, society, and industry that exist by the will of the majority." Hence, Garvey concluded that the demands of the NAACP "will only lead, ultimately, to further disturbances in riots, lynchings and mob rule." 51

Affiliation with the Ku Klux Klan (KKK)

Among the most controversial dealings of Marcus Garvey was his summit conference with the Ku Klux Klan in 1922. "In June 1922, while on the extensive tour of the United States, Garvey stopped in Atlanta for a conference with Edward Young Clarke, Acting Imperial Wizard of the Klan. 52 As a result of the discussions, Clarke expressed sympathy for the aims of the UNIA, while Garvey was reinforced in his suspicion that the Klan represented the invisible government of the United States." Consequently, black and white integrationistswere protesting against the UNIA-KKK summit. 53 However, Garvey concluded that "Between the Ku Klux Klan and the NAACP, give me the Klan for their honesty of pupose towards the Negro. They are better friends to my race, for telliing us who they are, and what they mean, thereby giving us a chance to stir for ourselves." 54

Criticism by Black Elitists

Because of the success of the 1920 Convention, criticism began to heavily plague the UNIA-ACL. "Part of the difficulty of organizing American Negroes stemmed from the traditional distrust of the upper classes for any mass movement. Upper-class Negroes, conscious of their status in colored society and anxious to improve their position in the eyes of the white world, hestitated to take part in this movement that embraced the black masses and adapted their superstitions and resentments. In addition, opposition drew to the UNIA at this time because other, contemporary Negro organizations had been created chiefly for the personal enrichment of their founders." 55 Also, black self-hatred and pure jealousy over the dynamic success of an foreigner led many to oppose the UNIA. Furthermore, many people began to question Garvey's likelihood of promoting race redemptionand a Negro republic. 56

Allegations by Ardent Opponents

A prominent opponent of the UNIA was James W. H. Eason who believed the UNIA should seek to solve the many difficult race problems of the United States first and foremost. During his campaign against the contemporary, Garvey leadership of the UNIA and the UNIA's large-scale goal of race redemption of all Negro people, he was shot from ambush and murdered. 57 Police reported that before his death,Though he did not live long enough to identify two out of the three murderers, Eason did assertthat Marcus Garvey was one who was behind the assassination. As a result, the Justice Department used theassasination as an excuse to intercept materials of the New Orleans division of the UNIA. As such, they claimed to have uncovered "evidence of a nation-wide anarchistic plot." "Many prominent African-Americans who were anti-Garvey or supporters of Eason, alleged that the UNIA. was alleged to consist 'in the main of Negro sharks and ignorant Negro fanatics.' These prominent Negroes, known as the 'Committee of Eight,' detailed Garvey-inspired violence to portray the lawless and dangerous character of the movement. They also pleaded to the Attorney Genereal to 'use his full influence completely to disband and extirpate this vicious movement.'" 58

Government's Attack

"As early as September 1918, Garvey's name appeared on a report to the Bureau of Investigation describing the police department's use of a "confidential employee" to listen to Garvey's speeches." A letter by Garvey, as well as a parcel containing UNIA material, that was being sent to British Honduras (now Belize) was intercepted by the Untied States Postal Censorship Committee. The U.S. Postal Censorship Committee informed the War Department of the material, noting that Garvey made: 59

"...an appeal to the racial instinct of the Negroes, calculated to incite hatred for the white race by urging them to do like Irish, the Jews, the East Indians, and all other oppressed peoples who are getting together to demand from their oppressors liberty, justice, equality." 60

Garvey was informed that his writings were considered a national security threat to the United States because of the circumstances of the US' involvement in World WarI and the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. . The Espinoage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 granted power to federal authorities to investigate people suspected of sedition. Under the Espionage Act, "every letter, writing, circular, postal card, picture, print,engraving, photograph, newspaper, pamphlet, book containing any matter advocating or urgingtreason, isurrection or foricble resistance to any laws of the United States is hereby declared nonmailable." Among federal laws at that time were those enforcing segregation. The Sedition Act was even harsher by forbading a person "to utter, print, write, or publish any disloyal, profane, scurrilous or abusive langauge about the form of government of the United States or Constitution." 61

Garvey's speeches and writings were deemed seiditious during World War I by the Military Intelligence Division, 62 and the UNIA's Negro World newspaper was claimed by J. Edgar Hoover to have "upheld the Soviet Russian rule." 63 Thus, the UNIA's Negro World was examined by the Post Office under the Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917 and the Espinoage Act of 1917. However, it was not these allegations of espinoage and sedition that led to Garvey's deportation to Jamaica.

Garvey was convicted on charges of mail fraud, not espinoage nor sedition. As a result, he was deported back to Jamaica, forcibly abandoning him from his work in the United States. Without the presence of the founder Garvey in the United States, membership, interest, and controversies surrounding the UNIA began to quickly decline. 64

There are several distinguishing features of the UNIA-ACL that constitute it as a civil religion , particularly a Black civil religion. First and foremost, civil religions aregrouped under the larger umbrella designated as "para-religions" and "para- religious." As such, organizations "share features in common with religious organizationsas well as to secular projects that nonetheless deal with matters of ultimate concern." 65 For instance, the UNIA-ACL practiced religious rituals andceremonies, such as the Universal Negro Catechism and the Universal Negro Ritual, that made "reference to traditional religious concepts" of the nature of God andJesus' historical relationship with Africa. 66 Moreover, its overarching goal was its "secular project" of establishing an African republic that would unite alldescendants of the Africa Diaspora together. Thus, the UNIA-ACL satisfies the two-pronge test that defines a civil religion. Furthermore, it should be noted that therituals practiced by the UNIA-ACL transcend secular and religious boundaries, thus making it a "para-religion." 67 As some of the rituals, such as theUniversal Negro Ritual and the Universal Negro Catechism, are highly religious in character, other pratices are very secular, emphasizing an ultimate goal. Theannual conventions of the UNIA-ACL constitute the secular practices. A few examples are:

1920 Convention

In 1920, the UNIA convention sought to unify the works of Blacks in the UNIA as well as report on the conditions of Blacks in their local areas. "Garvey announced that one one of the important projects to be undertaken by the UNIA assembly would be the drawing up of a Negro Declaration of Rights which would then be presented to the governments of the world." 68 On August 13, 1920, the UNIAadopted the "Declaration of the Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World." 69 "Moreover, the official colors of the movement was also adopted: red for the blood of the race, black to symbolize pride in the color of the skin; and green for the promise of a new and better life in Africa." 70

1924 Convention

The colonization program was given its final shape during the 1924 convention of the Universal Negro Improvement Association. Plans to transfer the UNIA headquarters from the United States to Liberia were being discussed by a U.N.I.A. delegation and Liberian officials. 71 The UNIA delegation received detailed suggestions and a friendly welcome bythe Liberian president's appointed local advisory committee. 72 However, opposition against the UNIA's African colonization project persisted in the United States and overseas. 73 Even later, the Liberian Consul General declared: "I am authorized to say that no person or persons leaving the United States under the auspices of the Garvey movement will be allowed to land in the Republic of Liberia." 74 Thus, the practical, compensatory purposes of the UNIA's Back to Africa movement failed. 75

The Negro Political Union was advocated at the 1924 Convention by Marcus Garvey, whose purpose was to "consolidate the political forces of the Negro through which the racewill express its political opinion." 76

The Official Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League Website :
This is the official homepage of the UNIA-ACL. On this site, information on the history, membership, and goals of the UNIA-ACL can be found.
http://www.unia-acl.org/

The Marcus Garvey and UNIA Papers Project, UCLA :
This site offers poetry, essays, and opinions of others about Garvey's beliefs, philosophy, and theology. Moreover, this site compares the UNIA-ACL institution to many historical and philosophical beliefs and institutions.
http://www.isop.ucla.edu/mgpp/lifeintr.htm

Compton. s Encyclopedia Online (Marcus Garvey) :
Compton's Encyclopedia details the life of Marcus Garvey and his instrumental role in initiating the UNIA-ACL. While focusing mainly on his public role in America, it also depicts Garvey's basic goals of the UNIA-ACL. This site focuses on Garvey's attempt to uplift the Negro race and create in them a sense of pride of their race.
http://www.optonline.com/comptons/ceo/01836_A.html

Encyclopedia Entry (Marcus Garvey) :
This site offers preliminary information for younger audiences about Marcus Garvey and his accomplishments. By providing a mini-autobiographical sketch, this site narrates Garvey's role in the UNIA.
http://kids.infoplease.com/ce5/CE020202.htm

Black Starr Enterprises :
Black Starr Enterprises is a commercial website offering books about Marcus Garvey and the UNIA-ACL. It also sells other UNIA-ACL paraphanelia, such as flags.
http://www.blackstarr.com/

Wer War Marcus Garvey? :
This site is about the "Back to Africa" movement and the development of the spirit of Ethiopianism. It was excerpted from "Reggae International", written by Stephen Davis and Peter Simon.
http://www.in.tu-clausthal.de/~wallner/marley/m_garvey.html

Marcus Mosiah Garvey Biography :
Stored on the Jamaican Web Service, this site provides a mini biography of the founder of the UNIA, Marcus Garvey. It goes into brief details of his accomplishments, including establishing the Universal Negro Improvement Association.
http://www.jamweb.com/marcus.htm

Marcus Garvey, Free Concise Encyclopedia Article :
This site on the Encarta server provides a brief summary of Marcus Garvey. Also included is many selected web links that relate to Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association. It also allows for periodical and news searches on Marcus Garvey and the UNIA.
http://encarta.msn.com/index/conciseindex/40/04025000.htm

PanAfrikan Edge Biography :
The PanAfrikan Edge website details Garvey's PanAfrikan movement. It not includes information on his establishment of the UNIA, whose goal was to create a strong, unified Afrikan state, but it also talked about the political difficulties and successes of the UNIA and the Black Star Line as well.
http://www.blacksurvival.com/bio.html

Marcus Garvey, Charlotte Country Day School Cultural Diversity :
This site explains the three basic themes of Marcus Garvey and the UNIA: race first, self-reliance, and a separate African nation. The second half of the article tells of Garvey's legal problems and political conflicts with other black politicians and the NAACP.
http://www.ccds.charlotte.nc.us/diversity/garvey.htm

Ku Klux Klan, Frequently Asked Questions :
The Ku Klux Klan offers brief information on the similarities between their beliefs and that of Marcus Garvey. While not offering much information about the UNIA-ACL, it does tell of their beliefs in race purity, separate race states, racial pride and advancement, all beliefs shared by the UNIA-ACL. The significance of the Ku Klux Klan is its historic ties with Marcus Garvey, and the two organizations' (KKK and UNIA) mutual use of each other's beliefs as authoritative sources when defending their own beliefs.
http://www.kukluxklan.org/faq.htm

Anti-Garvey/UNIA-ACL Links

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
This site is of significance because, while both the UNIA and the NAACP seek the racial uplift of the Negro Race, the NAACP has been traditionally characterized as an integrationist organization, whereas Marcus Garvey and the UNIA-ACL has been typically described as segregationist and separatist. Throughout his career, Marcus Garvey encountered many bouts with leaders of the NAACP, specifically W.E.B. DuBois, with whom he shared differing beliefs. However, it is because of the relatively "favorable" public image of the NAACP and the relatively little controversy that still surrounds the UNIA-ACL, there are no official statements or references on the NAACP website to being anti-UNIA-ACL.
http://www.naacp.org

1. Tony Martin. Race First: The Ideological and Organizational Struggles of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association , p. 6.
2. Tony Martin. Race First , p. 6.
3. John Henrick Clarke and Amy Jaques Garvey. Marcus Garvey and the Vision of Africa , p.3.
4. Rupert. Lewis. Marcus Garvey: Anti-Colonial Champion , p.17.
5 . David E. Cronon. Marcus Garvey , p. 17
6. Randall K. Burkett. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p.83
7. Burkett. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p.28.
8. Burkett. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p.28.
9. Baye, Senghor."Membership." senghor@hotmail.com (16 Feb. 2000).
10. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses: The Story of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association , p.4.
11. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.11.
12. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.14.
13. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p. 16.
14. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.16.
15. Sociological Analysis. William Sims Brainbridge and Rodney Stark. "Cult Formation: Three Compatible Models": 1979, 40, 4:283-295. Online. Internet. 27 Feb. 2000. Available http://etext.virginia.edu/~jk h8x/docs/cultform.html .
16. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.19.
17. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.42.
18. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p. 43.
19. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.44.
20. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.50.
21. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.61.
22. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.144.
23. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.144.
24. The Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League. "UNIA-ACL History" 1998. Online. Internet. 26 Feb. 2000. Available http://www.unia- acl.org/archive/history.htm.
25. The Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League. "Marcus Garvey & Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League Chronology: Timeline Page 7" 1998. Online. Internet. 21 Feb. 2000. Available http://www.unia-acl.org/info/timeline7.htm
26. UNIA-ACL. "What We Believe." http://www.unia- acl.org/archive/we_bliev.htm "Beliefs of the Group" was taken directly from "What We Believe" (written by Marcus Garvey) off of the UNIA Archives page.
27. David E. Cronon. Garveyism as a Religious Movement: The Institutionalization of a Black Civil Religion, p.67. . Marcus Garvey, p.81.
28. David E. Cronon. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p.27.
29. David E Cronon. Garveyism as a Religious Movement .
30. David E Cronon. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p.52.
31. David E Cronon. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p.53.
32. The Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League. "Declaration of Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World" 1998. Online. Internet. 21 Feb. 2000. Available http://www.unia- acl.org/archive/declare.htm.
33. Randall K. Burkett. Garveyism as a Religious Movement: The Institutionalization of a Black Civil Religion , p.67.
34. Burkett. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p.77.
35. Burkett. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p. 77
36. Burkett. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p.77
37. Burkett. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p.78.
38. Burkett. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p.78.
39. Burkett. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p.80.
40. Burkett. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p.81.
41. Burkett. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p.82.
42. Burkett. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p. 83.
43. Burkett. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p. 83.
44. Burkett. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p.84.
45. Burkett. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p. 86.
46. Burkett. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p. 86.
47. Burkett. Garveyism as a Religious Movement , p.87
48. E. David Cronon. Great Lives Observed: Marcus Garvey , p. 57.
49. E. David Cronon. Great Lives Observed , p. 58.
50. E. David Cronon. Great Lives Observed , p. 59.
51. E. David Cronon. Great Lives Observed , p. 54.
52. Tony Martin. Race First , p. 345.
53. Tony Martin. Race First , p. 344.
54. Tony Martin. Race First , p. 346.
55. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.73.
56. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.74.
57. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.109.
58. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.111.
59. Michel DuCille "Black Moses, Red Scare; The Clash of Marcus Garvey and J. Edgar Hoover," p.4.
60. Michel DuCille "Black Moses, Red Scare," p. 4.
61. Michel DuCille "Black Moses, Red Scare," p. 4.
62. Michel DuCille "Black Moses, Red Scare," p. 5.
63. Michel DuCille "Black Moses, Red Scare," p. 6.
64. Michel DuCille "Black Moses, Red Scare," p. 7.
65. Arthur L. Greil "Explorations Along the Sacred Frontrier", p. 156.
66. Arthur L. Greil "Explorations Along the Sacred Frontrier", p. 159.
67. Arthur L. Greil "Explorations Along the Sacred Frontrier", p. 162.
68. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p. 62.
69. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.66.
70. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.67.
71. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.124.
72. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.126.
73. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.127.
74. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.129.
75. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.130.
76. Edmund David Cronon. Black Moses , p.132.