SOC 257: New Religious Movements Lectures

University of Virginia

Department of Sociology

Jeffrey K. Hadden 














Social Influence: An Interlude











    


    Lecture Outline:
    





    

    

    



    


    

Part I
    




    Brainwashing Revisited


    




    


    


    




    Review of The Brainwashing Thesis


    




      

   
    1. The concept was introducted during the Korean

   War to explain defections to communism by a few American

   soldiers.

   

   
    2. Research conducted after the war failed to

   find any evidence to support the brainwashing hypothesis. 

   

   
    3. The concept was reintroduced in the 1960s and

   70s as an "explaination" for joining "cults." 

   

   
    4. Brainwashing is a metaphor that is widely and

   effectively promoted by a small group of anti-cultists.

   

   
    5. Contemporary research is consistent with the

   studies of soldiers in the Korean conflict:

   

   
        

      
      • influence is a common feature of

      interpersonal relations, but

      

      
      • there is no scientific evidence to advance

      the idea of brainwashing (by whatever name)

   
      

   

   
    6. In summary, brainwashing is not a viable concept:

   

   
        

      
      • there is no systematic theory; and

      

      
      • there is no body of empirical research to

      lend support to the phemenon that has been characterized by the

      anti-cultists and the mass media as "brainwashing" 

   
      

   

   
    7. Notwithstanding the evidence, the idea

   persists, and many people believe that "cults" do have unusualy

   powers to manipulate people by the use of extraordinary powers.

   


    




    There is an alternative explanation that allows us

to acknoweledge the fact that "cults" and "sects" can have very

significant influence on individuals without having to resort to the

presuppositions and false premises of the brainwashing metaphone.


    


    




    Part II
    




    Social Influence as an Alternative

Account
    




    


    


    




    Social influence is

an alternative concept that helps us better understand the

techniquess of persuasion utilized by NRMs in the broader context of

persuasion and manipulation in human cultures. 
    




    Robert Cialdini, a social psychologist, has

written a book entitled Influence, which digests

much of what the social sciences know about how influence works.


    




    It is a wonderful primer on how we are

all simultaneously victims and vultures in everyday life.
    




    It is a rare day when any of us is not influenced

and does not influence others. 
    




    In short, influence is ubiquitous in everyday

life. 
    




    Six orienting premises.
    




      

   
    1. Influencing others is part of the eperience of

   being human;

   

   
    2. Some people are extremely skilled at getting

   others to do what they want;

   

   
    3. All of us are "had," ......not just

   occasionally......but often;

   

   
    4. All of us regularly engage in behavior aimed

   at gaining compliance from others; and

   

   
    5. All of us possess training and skills to

   assist us in this task

   

   
    6. The exercise of influence takes many forms.

   


    








    If all are engaged in acts to influence others, it

necessarily follows that religious leaders, and others acting in the

name of a religious cause, will seek to influence others.
    




    Religious leaders have been among the

most skilled influencers
    




      

   
    • In the 19th century evangelists virtually made

   a science of getting people to step out into the isle and come

   forward to "receive salvation" when the invitation was given at

   the end of a sermon. Charles Finney, Dwight Moody and Billy Sunday

   were not just skilled preachers, they were skilled in creating the

   social context that would make people receptive to their

   invitation. 

   

   
    • Billy Graham, the most successful and revered

   evangelist of the second half of the 20th century, systematically

   built upon these techniques developed by Finney, Moody and Sunday.

   

   

   
    • Norman Vincent Peale, a liberal Protestant

   minister, similarly influenced millions with he books (e.g.

   The Power of Positive

   Thinking) , periodicals and radio

   broadcasts. 


    




    We make a serious misjudgment if we fail to

recognize that the techniques of religious

leaders are not superior to those who seek

to influence in the social, political and economic spheres of

culture. Furthermore, it is arguable whether religious leaders

techniques of persuasion are different in any significant way from

others who seek to influence us. 
    




    Each chapter of Cialdini's book draws examples

from religious groups, most of which sociologists would classify as

"cults" or "sects." This does not mean that the influence techniques

of NRMs are superior or "less creditable" than the techniques of

mainstream religious leaders, political leaders, etc. In fact,


    




      

   
    • The influence techniques of some of the highly

   controversial "cult" leaders of the past few decades can be judged

   as "crude" and "amateurish" compared with the "mainstream"

   Christian evangelists.


    




    


    

    Part III
    




    The Wonderful World of 
    



Robert B. Cialdini
    




    


    


    




    How Cialdini got interested in

influence.
    




    Cialdini's answer is candidly honest:

and straightforward in saying that all of his life, "I've been a patsy." 


    




    How Cialdini investigated

influence. 
    




    He employees the social science

technique of "participant

observation," 
    




    Participant observation involves taking the role

of participants in a group. In this instance, the group consisted

people Cialdini called "compliance

professionals." Very broadly, a

compliance professional is a person gainfully employed in work that

consciously seeks to impact the public, or some segment thereof, so

that they comply with the professional. Most of the time, this

involves getting people to buy a product or seek a service. 


    




      

   
    • as Cialdini puts is so succinctly, the

   compliance professional is engaged in the act of "getting people to say yes"

   ....preferably automatically, a kind of mindless compliance

   without first thinking. 

   

   
    • to learn this world, Cialdini sought

   employment as a salesmen (or various products), blackjack dealer

   in Las Vegas, waiter, etc. As participant observer, Cialdini

   gained access to the "insiders" views and strategies for

   influencing others. 


    




    Six major tactics or strategies for gaining

compliance: 
    




    Cialdini identifies six major types of influence.

The organization of his book devotes a chapter to each type or

tactic:
    




      

   
    1. Reciprocation

   

   
    2. Consistency/Commitment

   

   
    3. Social Proof

   

   
    4. Authority

   

   
    5. Liking

   

   
    6. Scarcity

   
      

         


    




    Reciprocity
    




      

   Rule of reciprocation: 

   

   
        

      
      • Repaying in kind what another person has

      provided us. 

      

      
          

         
        • If somebody does something nice, we feel

         we owe them the return of that kindness in some appropriate

         form. 

      
        

      

      
      • The compliance professional is looking to

      create uninvited

      debts. The debt incured, the

      compliance professional seeks to manipulate us to reciprocate

      in a manner than reeps a net benefit to him or her. 

      

      
      • Reciprocal concession is the act of asking for something that could not

      reasonably be expected and then agreeing to take less. Again,

      the net gain goes to the compliance artist. 

   
      

   

   
      [Class illustration: the wonderful "deep

   discounted" Spring break week-end at Hilton Head]
      


    




      

   

   
      

   Commitment and Consistency      

   

   
        

      It is normal to strive to be

      consistent.

      

      
        "Once we have made a choice or taken a

      stand, we will encounter personal and interpersonal pressures

      to behave consistently with that commitment" 
        

      

      
          

         
        • Consistency is probably learned

         (as opposed to innate)

         

         
        • We strive to behave in whys that are

         consistent with our values and principles; and

         

         
        • We similarly strive to avoid being

         perceived as inconsistent

      
        

   
      

   

   
      

   
      

   Social Proof
      

   

   
        

      The fact that others engage in a

      particular behavior constitutes a kind of "social proof" that

      it is OK or appropriate

      

      
          

         
        • The principle of social proof

         says: "the greater the number of people who do something,

         the greater the proof that it is correct.

         

         
        • There is a reciprocal dimension to this:

         if I do something and others follow me, it must be

         alright.

         

         
        • In the face of uncertainity, we invoke

         the principle: "convince and ye shall be convinced"

      
        

   
      

   

   
      

   
      

   Authorithy
      

   

   
        

      We are likely to comply when we believe

      someone someone to be an authority. 

      

      
          

         
        • Authority can provide a

         shortcut to decision -making. If we accept someone as an

         authority, and that person advocates certain behaviors, then

         we do not have to go through what might otherwise be a

         difficult decision-making process. 

         

         
        • Compliance professionals seek to create

         the appearance of authority to gain our compliance: e.g.

         

         

         
            

            
          • trappings

            

            
          • titles

         
          

      
        

   
      

   

   
      

   
      

   Liking
      

   

   
        

      We are much more likely to comply with

      another when we like that person and/or perceive that he or she

      likes us. 

      

      
          

         
        • It is much easier to say "no"

         to someone who is a stranger, or someone we don't

         like.

         

         
        • The compliance "professional's are about

         the business of constructing a world that will quickly move

         themselves from the role of stranger to one whom we like and

         can consider a friend. 

         

         
        • Here are a few of the techniques they

         use:

         

         
            

            
          • creating similarities

            of background, beliefs, tastes;

            

            
          • showers of compliments;

            

            
          • cognitive

            consistency linking

         
          

      
        

   
      

   

   
      

   
      

   Scarcity
      

   

   
        

      Scarcity Principle: 

      

      
        "if an item is available in limited

      quantities, or for a lmitied time, that knowledge

      psychologically increases its desirability." 

      
        

      

      
          

         
        • If there are not many left, we

         want them.....

         

         
        • If we can't have something we want

         it

      
        

   
      


    




    


    

    Part IV
    




    Should Someone be Regulating

Influenced?


    


    




    Cialdini's perspective:
    




    The pace of the modern world demands

that we frequently use shortcuts to beliefs, decisions and

action.
    




    Indeed, Cialdina says, "the blitz of

modern life demands that we have faithful shortcults" (emphasis

added)
    




    There is nothing inherently wrong with shortcuts,

he argues.
    




    "The problem comes when something causes the

normally trustworthy cues to counsel us poorly." 
    


    




    Instructor's perspective: 
    




    Honest people and con-artists alike

present themselves to us as trustworthy. 
    




    There are no easly rules for deciding

whether our best interests are served by accepting the "compliance

professional" definition of the situation. We can almost be certain

that compliance professional will not act contrary to his or her

interests. 
    




    Sorting out or, more appropriately, discerning

shades of gray, goes to the heart of the matter
    




    But how do we discern good (honest) counsel from

poor (dishonest) and self-serving counsel? 
    




    What is Cialdini's solution to the

problem? 
    




    "I am at war with the exploiters...."


    




    "....we all are."
    




    While Cialdini says "I would urge [a]

forceful counterassault," is he really saying something more than caveat emptor?
    




    Instructor's response.
    




    My sense is that he is not. Or, if he is,

Cialdini's criteria for when to engage in "forceful counterassault" t

are not set forth. Consider the following from his book:
    




    "Compliance professionals who

play fairly by the rules of shortcut response are not to be considered the enemy; on

the contrary, they are our allies in an

efficient and adaptive process of exchange. The proper targets for counteraggression are only those

individuals who falsify, counterfeit, to misrepresent the evidence

that naturally cues our shortcut responses." (228) 
    


    




    How would Cialdini deal with the techniques of

"integrated saturation

marketing?"
    




    Examples:
    




      

   
    • The packaging and advertising of a wide array

   of products that surround the release of a Disney movie?

   

   
    • The use of morning news/entertainment

   television programming to promote

   evening news, or primetime programming;

   promoting the books of a publishing hourse the holding company of

   the network also owns by having authors as guests; 

   

   
    • Mass media hyping of the Super Bowl to create

   large television audiences, greater sales of newspapers and

   magazines, which raise the price of advertising. And this is to

   say nothing of the t-shirts, sweaters, and other logo inscribed

   consuables which add up to megabucks


    




    Or how would Cialdini deal with the promotion of

socially "evil" products? 
    




    Examples: 
    




      

   
    • Lottery tickets

   

   
    • Tobacco products

   

   
    • Negative political advertisements