Jeffrey K. Hadden
Department of Sociology
Department of Sociology
LECTURE
Lecture Outline:
Introduction and Brief Discussion of Group's to Be Examined
19th Century Religious Movements
Catholics
Mormons
Early 20th Century Religious Movements
Fundamentalism
Pentecostalism
Christian Science and New Thought
Mid to Late 20th Century Religious Movements
The Family
Unification Church
Scientology
New Age
Branch Davidians
Conventional Wisdom About Religious Movements in American History
New religions have long been considered an aberration on the religious landscape. As a result, they have not been recognized as the dynamic, cutting edge of religious growth and renewal.
The dominant paradigm for understanding religious movements has been the idea of "Great Awakenings." Almost all historians agree that there were two Great Awakenings; some postulate up to seven.
First Great Awakening
- 18th Century circa 1730 ----> American Revolutionary War
Second Great Awakening
- Commenced about 100 years later and continuted until the Civil War
Other Awakenings
- Post World War II
- Youth Counter-culture (1960s-70s)
The New Paradigm View of American Religious History
- The nation has experienced sustained growth in religious adherence throughout American history [especially after the Revolutionary War]
- Explanation: Environments that permit religious pluralism are likely to experience religious growth.
- Disestablishment is key to institutionalizing a vigorous religious economy.
Why has the religious economy perspective only now entered the intellectual market place?
From the beginning, religious history was written by those who were part of the religious establishment.
They tended not to take new religious seriously -- or viewed them as something less that legitimate.
And, they didn't do arithmetic
Illustration of Concept of Market Share
T1
All Souls
10,000,000
Brand X
2,000.000
Market Share =
20% T2
All Souls
20,000,000
Brank X
2,500,000
Market Share =
12.5%
- In this illustration Brand X gains 25% between T1 and T2. That represents a growth of 25%. If the time period in question is pretty short, this gain may seem considerable.
- When the concept of market share in introduced, we get a rather different perspective. The total universe of religious adherents has grown by 100%, of doubled. Thus, the market share of Brand X has declined from 20% to 12.5%. This represents a staggering loss of 38% of Brand X's market share.
- This is exactly what has happened to the older established denominations in American history. Until the 1960s almost every religious tradition in America continuted to grow in absolute numbers, but the older groups had experienced a long trend of declining market share.
- This resulted from the combination of population growth (in some considerable measure through immigration) and the emergence of religious movements.
We can see the further impact of this process in the table below wherein we assume that at T3 the total number of religious adherents in the religious economy again doubles in size and Brand X again grows by 25%. Brand X's market share has now declined to only 7.8%.
T3
All Souls
40,000,000
Brand X
3,125,000
Market Share =
7.8% Hotbeds of Religious Movements Activity in the 19th Century
New England
Religious movement activity in New England tended toward what this course has characterized as cultic
Examples:
Spiritualism
Theosophy
Christian ScienceUpstate New York
New religious here tended toward sectarian
Examples:
Jehovah's Witnesses
Millerites -- Seventh Day Adventists
Mormons: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day SaintsThe Christian Science church in New England and the Mormons in Upstate New York may appear to represent exceptions to the characterization of New England producing "cults" and New York producing "sects." Closer inspection reveals this not to be the case. Both Christian Scientists and Mormons "barrowed" extensively from the host Christian culture. The radical departure from Christianity was immediately evident in the Christian Science tradition. At the onset, however, the LDS theology did not seem to represent such a radical departure from Christianity.
From:
the margin to the main stream of American religious life
"A century ago the Mormon Church was widely viewed as a morally and politically dangerous sect. Today it is widely seen as a conservative repository of old-fashioned values, an American success story."
Peter Steinfels, New York Times 9/15/91
To:
the 4th major monotheistic faith tradition
"Given a continuation of present growth rates, the Mormon Church will achieve the status of the fourth major monotheistic faith tradition sometime during the first quarter of the twenty-first century"
Rodney Stark, Review of Religious Research, 1980
Many conservative evangelical traditions do not recognize the legitimacy of the Mormons as part of the Christian faith. Some of them are explicitly organized in opposition to the LDS Church. An examination of the counter-cult literature on the Internet may cause many to question whether the Mormon Church has really entered the mainstream of American culture. This perspective notwithstanding, most faith traditions has accepted the Mormons as a legitimate religious tradition. Peter Steinfel's feature article on Mormons (NY Times) demonstrates the success of a once feared and hated group in finding its way into the mainstream of the social, political and economic culture of America.
Sociologist Rodney Stark's assessment of the Mormon's growth and argument that they are on the brink of becoming recognized as the 4th major monotheistic tradition is based to two factors: (1) membership growth projects and (2) recognition of the fact that the LDS Church, while viewing itself as Christian, has developed a theology that is a radical departure of the mainstream of Christian thought.
Let's look at some membership growth figures. Later we will turn to the unique features of LDS theology.
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In The Rise of Christianity (1996) Stark offers some comparative estimates of the growth of Christianity during the first several centures of its life. These estimates are very instructive of the potential significance of these LDS growth figures.
Stark's projections of LDS growth, first published in 1983 and then updated in 1995, represent straight line linear projections. One can easily think of lots of reasons why this linear growth curve will not continue for a long period of time. But it is also hard to imagine how the steady growth of the past century will suddenly come to an abrupt halt.
The high growth projection estimates below assumes a 50% increase of membership in 10 years; the low estimate assumes 30% growth in a decade. Note that actual membership growth is significantly exceeding the high projection rate.
* Membership in millions. High estimate = 50% growth per decade; Low estimate = 30% growth per decade
Year High Estimate Low Estimate Actual Membership 1985 5,680 5,288 5,911 1990 6,957 6,029 7,761 1994 8,182 6,697 9,025 2000 10,436 7,838
2020 23,480 13,246
2040 52,830 22,387
2060 118,867 37,833
2080 267,452 63,939
Faith Year Size Christian 1980 1.433 Billion
Muslim 1980 733 Million
Jewish 1980 17 Million
Mormon 1994 9 Million
In the lecture on cult formation we indicated that new religions, to succeed, must:
- Develop novel ideas that differentiate the group from others in the religious economy; and
- Recruit and sustain a membership
The growth figures above bear adequate testimony to the ability of the Mormons to gain and sustain membership. What is the role of novel ideas in the development of the LDS faith?
When you think of the early Mormon church, what is the most distinctive novel idea?
Most people think of polygamy.
Pologamy yes......but:
- Polygamy may be viewed as one of the reasons that placed Mormons in high tension with the broader culture, but it has little to do with the reasons that people found the Mormon Church attractive
- The vast majority of early Mormons did not practice polygamy; and
- Plural mariages scarcely exhibited the lascivious behavior popular culture of the 19th century assumed;
- Further, strongly perceived differeneces preceed the doctrine of plural marriage, and polygamy is not the reason for the troubles Mormons encountered in Missouri and Illinois.
- To understand what made the Mormon faith novel, we need to examine their theology, for it truly has many unique features that take it beyond "conventional Christianity."
Insert video:
A Matter of Principle: Polygamy in the Mountain West
PBS (1991)Novel Mormon Beliefs
- Creation Narrative
- Distinctive Theological Views
Mormons consider themselves to be Christians as is evidenced by their name:
Church of Jesus Christ of Later Day Saints
Just as many groups before them, they added new ideas that separated themselves from those who had gone before. But the theological twist of the Mormons was so different that much of the Christian community has never been able to consider the LDS Church to be a "legitimate" Christian denomination. Within the past decade, both the National Council of Churches and the National Religious Broadcasters have turned down their request to become a member body.
What do Mormons believe that is so different?
Mormon Creation Narrative:
600 BCE: Lehi, a Hebic patriarch escaped the fall of the Tower of Babel and, thus, avoided being carried into bondage.
He crossed the seas with his family and they became one of the lost tribes of Israel.
Later his family broke into two warring camps:
NEPHITES (on the side of righteousness) and
LAMANITES (wicked)
The Role of Jesus Christ
- After the ressurection, Christ appeared before the two warring groups.
- There followed 200 years of harmony before the commenced to war again.
- The Lamanites destroyed the Nephites.....
- Except for Moroni who preserved the records of the his father Mormon.
- These records contained a history of life in the new world.
- Moroni buried the plqates (which were engraved in gold) and;
- In the fullness of time, it was he who appeared to the youn Joseph Smit like a pillar of light and revealed the location of the gold plates.
God acting in the new world
The first distinctive character of LDS theology is that God was also acting in history in the new world.
The history of the Nephites, as recorded and preserved by Mormon, provide the key to the eternal salvation.
In the fullness of time, God selected Joseph Smith to set the Church right and prepare the way for the second coming of Christ.
The Mormons's unique path to salvation
Moroni appears to Joseph Smith and provides new revelation regarding God's plan for salvation.
This plan places a distance between Christians and Mormons that is as distinctive as the gulf that separates Jews and Christians.
Distinctive theological views:
Post Mortal Spirit World
Millennium
Last Judgment
Exaltation
Post Mortal Spirit World
After life in this world comes a spirit world where people will be divided into two distinctive arenas:
Paradise
a state of happiness, rest and peace
Spirit Prison
a state of hell
Both spirit worlds offer opportunities for spirit progression toward the highest order.
The Millennium
A thousand years of peace, love and joy will begin with the second coming of Christ.
Only righteous people will live on the earth.. not all of whom will be Mormons.
The task of the Church during the Millennium will be two fold:
Temple work
Missionary work
The Last Judgment
1 Celestial
2 Terrestial
3 Telestial
4 Outer Darkness
At the time of the final judgment, people will be assigned to the kingdom for which they have prepared.
CELESTIAL
Those who received the Gospel.... including temple marriage for eternity
TERRSTIAL
Those who rejected the gospel on earth but afterward received it in the spirit world
TELESTIAL
Those who did not receive gospel on earth or in spirit world...will suffer for their sins until after the Millennium and will then be resurrected....
OUTER DARKNESS
These will live in eternal darkness, torment, and misery with Satan and his angles forever.
Exaltation
Exaltation is eternal life
Those who have eternal life will become Gods.
They will have everything the Heavenly Father and Jesus Christ have--all power, glory, dominion, and knowledge.
How did the Mormon Church move toward lowering the level of tension with the broader culture?
Overview of Mormon Success
In the early years, the Mormon Church did not seem particularly distinguishable from other Christian groups.
In Ohio, Mormons assume Hebraic qualities, i.e.., as a chosen people....living communally and viewing themselves as a lost tribe of Israel.
In Nuavoo, Illinois, distinctive views develop
The "great trek" westward to Utah instills a sense of kinship to the Israelites
Confrontation with federal authorities forces abandon polygamy
This begins a long process in which the distinctive features of Mormonism go inside the temple and the temple is off limits to all but the certified faithful.
All baptized adults trained in leadership roles.
Revelation regarding minorities opens up the continents for vigorous missionary work
Conditions for Success of Religious Movements*
1. Maintain continuity with the host society
2. Maintain a medium level of tension with host society.
3. Teach doctrines that are non-empirical
4. Legitimate leaders who have adequate authority to be effective.
5. Generate highly motivated volunteer labor force including many willing to proselytize
6. Maintain fertility sufficient to offset member mortality.
7. Unregulated religious economy
8. Sustain strong internal attachments while retaining social networks with non- members
9. Maintain sufficient strictness to avoid becoming secularized.
10. Socialize young to minimize defection and resist the appeal of reduced strictness.
* After Rodney Stark
1. Maintaining continuity
Beliefs are presented as Christian
Continuity is most evident in the embracing of emerging cultural values that are tremendously important
Some have characterized the Mormon value system as quintessentially American
These values include:
self help and self reliance
deference to authority
strong preference for local control; rejection of an expanding role for Federal government
privately administered charity
2. Medium level of tension with host society
The Mormon leadership seemed intuitively to understand that they needed to sustain tension with the broader society, but they nearly over did it.
a. In part, they were different because they said they were different. And they often said it in obnoxious ways.
b. Creation of own militia
c. Printed their own currency
d. Polygamy
3. Non-empirical doctrine
This is not normally a difficult criterion for new religions to achieve.
The problem occurs when a groups makes claims (or prophecies) that are readily subject to disconfirmatoin.
For example, specifying a date for the second coming, or promising specific rewards that lots of followers clearly have not received. (e.g.., wealth).
4. Legitimate leaders with authority
Legitimate leaders with adequate authority to be effective, including:
(a) "clear doctrinal justifications" for authority;
(b) participation by members in the authority system
5. Mormon's hierarchy of leadership is ordained of God.
- Participation is a requirement of maintaining membership and, theoretically, anyone can rise to high levels of authority.
6. Sufficient fertility to offset mortality
Mormons have maintained one of the highest fertility rates in America.
7. Compete in an unregulated religious economy
Directly raiding other faith traditions will increase level of tension with host culture.
Greatest opportunities will occur from recruiting from among the ranks of the religiously inactive.
8. Strong internal attachments, but open social networks
9. Maintain strictness to avoid becoming secularized.\
10.Socialize youth to minimize defection; avoid reduced strictness
Mormon recruiting methods by rate of success
% all new recruits
Door-to-door canvassing
0.1% Covert referral
7 % Overt referral
8 % Appointment with missionary
34% Contact with missionay in home of Mormon friend or relative
50%
Moore, R. Laurence, 1986.
Religoius Outsiders and the Making of Americans. New York: Oxford University Press.
On how American religious history has ignored cults and sects, see "Introduction," pp 3-21;
On Mormons as "quintessentially American," see: Ch 1, "How To Become a People: The Mormon Scenario," pp 25-47.
Stark, Rodney, 1987.
"How New Religions Succeed: A Theoretical Model," in Bromley, David G. and Phillip E. Hammond, (eds), The Future of New Religious Movements. Macon GA: Mercer University Press. pp.11-29.
Stark, Rodney, 1996.
The Rise of Christianity: A Sociologists Reconsiders History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Ch 1, "Conversion and Church Growth," examines how compound growth rates add up to a major faith tradition. Compare this chapter with the Mormon experience.
Stark, Rodney, and William S. Bainbridge, 1980.
"Newworks of Faith: Interpersonal Bonds and Recruitment to Cults and Sects." American Journal of Sociology 85: pp 1276-1395.