Religious Movements Homepage: Chen Tao

Chen Tao:

God's Salvation Church

I. Group Profile

Name: Chen Tao: God's Salvation Church
Founder: Hon-ming Chen
Date of Birth: 1956
Birth Place: Pei-pu, Hsin-chu County; Taiwan
Year Founded: 1993
Sacred or Revered Texts: Texts written by founder Chen: God's Descending in Clouds (Flying Saucers) on Earth to Save People ; The Practical Evidence and Study of the World of God and Buddha
Cult or Sect: Negative sentiments are typically implied when the concepts "cult" and "sect" are employed in popular discourse. Since the Religious Movements Homepage seeks to promote religious tolerance and appreciation of the positive benefits of pluralism and religious diversity in human cultures, we encourage the use of alternative concepts that do not carry implicit negative stereotypes. For a more detailed discussion of both scholarly and popular usage of the concepts "cult" and "sect," please visit our Conceptualizing "Cult" and "Sect" page, where you will find additional links to related issues.
Size of Group: Chen and 140 of his followers immigrated to San Dimas, CA, in 1995. Now only 30 remain, residing in Lockport, N.Y.

II. History

Hon-Ming Chen was born April 22, 1955 in the city of Chai'i in southwestern Taiwan. Chen's mother died when Chen was very young, and his father died of a stroke years later. Chen graduated from the Taiwanese compulsory education system and then went on to earn a bachelor's degree in political science. Chen later went on to study social science in graduate school. By 1983, at the age of twenty-eight, Chen got a job as an associate professor at Chai-Nan Junior College of Pharmacy where he taught social science until 1993.

In 1992, considering himself an atheist the majority of his life, Chen had a religious revelation. He believed that he had received a message from God instructing him to pursue the religious life. ¹ Chen studied numerious religious texts such as the Buddhist Sutras, the New and Old Testaments, and the Tao-Te Ching. Chen found many teachers of new age religion who would teach their religious precepts in exchange for large fees. Having become comfortable with the teachings of these new age religions, Chen himself became a student of one such UFO religious group in 1992.

Chen paid the large fees to recieve the religious teachings, only to become disallusioned by what he saw as currupt leadership. Having accused his teacher of being part devil, Chen left the group with several other displeased followers. Some of the defecting students joined with Chen and created the Soul Light Resurgence Association (SLRA). ² In 1995 Chen began to preach that North America is the "Pureland of God." Contending Chen continued to convince other followers of the need to move to the United States and in the first few months of 1997 he and about twenty-five other members permanently moved to San Dimas, a northeastern suburb of Los Angeles. Renting space there, Chen and his followers officially established God's Salvation Church. ³

The group had been in San Dimas for only a few months when Hon-Ming Chen and his followers began looking toward Texas. In March 1997 Chen announced to his followers that Garland, Texas had become the new headquarters for God's Salvation Church. A few days after this announcement, a house at 3513 Ridgedale Drive in Garland Texas was purchased.Garland was allegedly chosen by Chen because it sounded like "Godland". ⁴ From March 1997 to December 1997 followers in San Dimas and Taiwan relocated to Garland, Texas. The church's operations slowly migrated from San Dimas to Garland in the following monthes.

In June of 1997 Chen drew some media attention when he and a small group of his followers were searchingVancouver, Canada, for the "Jesus of the West." ⁵ In a vision Teacher Chen was told that this 'reincarnation of Jesus' would be a six-foot tall, 28-year-old man resembling Abraham Lincoln and that he would be residing in Vancouver. The search for the Canadian Christ was foretold in Chen's first book The Practical Evidence and Study of the World of God and Buddha. The group placed a personals ad in The Province and Vancouver Sun in an attempt to find the Canadian Christ. ⁶ But no "Jesus of the West" was ever found by Chen and his followers.

In Garland the group self-published God's Descending on Clouds (Flying Saucers) to Save People was printed in Garland in September of 1997. In the book Chen states that God will descend in human form at 3513 Ridgedale Drive on March 31, 1998, at exactly 10:00 a.m. ⁷ This human incarnation of God will have all the physical features of Chen but he will be able to speak all languages (xenoglossia), walk through walls, and he will replicate himself as many times as necessary to greet everyone simultaneously. ⁸ According to the book, God will announce his descent by taking control of the television airwaves six days earlier. At 12:01 a.m. on March 25, 1998 God will be seen on channel 18 all across North America. ⁹ The book further prothecized other significant world events that are expected to happen in late 1998 and 1999 as the Great Tribulation approaches.

Reports from the media began to surface about a possible mass suicide if Chen's prophecies were untrue. The mass suicide of Heaven's Gate on March 28, 1997 had spark ideas that maybe Chen and his followers would do the same. A press conference was held on March 12 to answer questions about connections to Heaven's Gate, the possibility of suicide, the details of Chen's divine expectations for the rest of the month and the next year, and allegations of wrongdoing by the group. ¹⁰ Calming the fears of the media, Chen allowed a handful of reporters to see the various religious implements and shrines around the house. But Chen forceably denied any idea of a mass suicide.

The days just prior to March 25 were a mix of frantic media activity, city officials planning and preparing for crowd control, and church members conducting spiritual preparations for God's imminent arrival. The church members did several things in preparation for God's arrival. Early on Tuesday, March 24 church members conducted a baptism-like ritual. Among other symbolic preparations, about twenty of the male followers shavedtheir heads in preparation for God's arrival. ¹¹

At midnight on channel 18 there was nothing but RF static. The media, the police and curious onlookers waited in suspense. Some members of the media speculated that Chen and some part of the group were going to commit suicide inside Chen's house. Calming the fear that the media created, Chen emerged about twenty-five minutes after midnight to a host of awaiting cameras and reporters. However, he also maintained his firm belief in his religious convictions and stated that he would continue to lead his church. As the press conference drew to a close a reporter asked, "Do you consider yourself to be a false prophet?" To which Chen cleverly replied, "I have never referred to myself as a prophet." ¹² Chen then added, "I would recommend anybody not believe what I said anymore."

The precautions that the city of Garland took on the morning of Tuesday, March 31, were identical to those on the evening of March 24, the date of Chen's second prophecy. Chen then gave a demonstration to prove his own godhood. He stared directly into the sun for several moments and then turned to reporters, explaining that a mere mortal would have been blinded. Some reporters seemed less than impressed, one noted that Chen was blinking profusely after the divine demonstration. ¹³ Through his interpreter, Richard Liu, Chen blamed the mass media for ridiculing him and failing to accurately portray his messages. Chen offered to be stoned or crucified . He said that for the next ten minutes he would allow anyone to crucify or stone him to death. For weeks Chen had been saying that he would be willing to suffer the death penalty from his own followers or the general public should his March 31 prophecy fail. ¹⁴ God did not descend in human form as Chen had predicted.

Chen announced that on the next day, April 1, 1998, he and nine followers were going to the Great Lakes area to prepare his followers before the coming tribulation in 1999. ¹⁵ Chen also stated that by May 10, all of his followers would leave the Dallas suburb of Garland. The very next day, April 1, Chen and about nine others flew to Buffalo, NY and rented a minivan. They claim to have been guided by God to drive to Olcott, New York, a small town on the shores of Lake Ontario. ¹⁶ That morning Chen had a prophetic vision in which he saw the numbers 17 and 78. The city of Olcott is located at the junction of highways 17 and 78.In May 1998 the majority of members left Garland. Half, with visa problems, returned to Taiwan. Half moved to Lockport, New York. To this day, Hon-ming Chen continues to lead God's Salvation Church, but only 30 of the once 140 member group remain as followers.

III. Beliefs of the Group

Chen Tao is a complex blending of elements from Christianity, Buddhism, Taoism, science fiction, and Taiwanese folk religion. ¹⁷ The basic elements of belief in Chen Tao appear to be anchored in Buddhism, Taoism, and Taiwanese folk religions. From the West comes a heavy dose of popular culture and mythology (particularly UFOlogy) along with an apocalyptic and millenarian worldview. Christian theology clearly informs the latter, but does not otherwise seem to play a central role in theological doctrines.

All life originates from the energy of God, who is one with the "magnetic field of Void" and can thus can divide his spiritual light energy into separate beings. ¹⁸ Through the process of transmigration, each being can evolve into a higher life form: from animal, to human, to the divine status of Bodhisattva or enlightened one. ¹⁹ A souls ability to transmigrate depends upon the person developing purity in the "main soul light". The main soul light is the primary of three souls. The other two souls being the temporal conscious and physical souls.

The main soul light keeps the eternal record of every moment in a being's lives. The purity of the main soul light can be measured through its "spiritual light energy". ²⁰ The spiritual light energy of heaven (or Void) is twelve million degrees. ²¹ Divine beings, such as Bodhisattvas and angels, have nine million degrees of spiritual light energy; a few divine beings, such as Jesus Christ and the Ju- lai Buddha, have twelve million degrees of energy. ²² Purity is attained through the evolutionary process of transmigration.

The three souls separate upon death: if the main soul light is pure (above nine million degrees), this soul will be united with the Void and escape further purification. ²³ However, if the main soul light is not pure the old conscious and physical souls will reattach themselves to the transmigrated being until the being has atoned for the sins of lives in which the attached souls were involved; this process of "causal retribution" continues until the karma is erased. ²⁴

The evolutionary cycle of transmigration is extremely long, because the number of lives experienced by a being renders increasingly less likely the possibility that the causal karma will be erased. ²⁵ In fact, some of the eighty percent of the world's population whose low spiritual light energy leads to their death in the great tribulation of 1999 will later be transmigrated as animals on Mars in order to continue their purification. ²⁶

Another main theological concept of Chen Tao is the presence of "outside souls" and "devils". Two major obstacles in the evolution of beings are the hindrances presented by the outside souls and devils. These malevolent entities feed on the spiritual light energy of transmigrated beings, reducing the beings' ability to erase their karmic records. Outside souls are defined as those conscious and physical souls who did not report to the underworld upon death. These souls become lost after suffering a violent or unexpected death. ²⁷ Outside souls exist by draining human beings of their spiritual light energy, as well as consuming the spiritual air in mountains and rivers. ²⁸

Devils are "devoted to bewildering the world," and seek to possess transmigrated beings in order toincrease the level of evil and violence in the world. ²⁹ Devils frequently are the previous souls of a being who combine with the being's current souls until the sins of past lives are atoned. ³⁰ Particularly dangerous are the "King Satans," or "heavenly devil kings," who are responsible for all the great tribulations that have occurred. These devils are the biblical "fallen angels" whose greed has irreparably corrupted them. ³¹ King Satans are particularly prominent in Asia and Africa, where an average of forty-seven percent of the population are possessed in some way by heavenly devil kings. ³² The great tribulation in 1999 will begin when the King Satans attempt to cannibalize each other in an attempt to find spiritual energy from which to feed. ³³

There have been five great tribulations on this planet (not including the nuclear war almost 4.5 trillion years ago that resulted in the creation of our solar system) ³⁴ , and over 888,800 million tribulations since the beginning of time. ³⁵ The first great tribulation on this planet was waged by dinosaurs "at a place called Armageddon in the Hebrew tongue" nearly ten million years ago ³⁶ ; the remaining tribulations also ended in a final climatic battle in modern Israel ³⁷ . Each tribulation was survived by beings living in modern America, who were rescued by God in a flying saucer ³⁸ .

Chen is unclear about the date of China's attack on Taiwan: he predicts both February of 1999 ³⁹ , and shortly after April 22, 1999. ⁴⁰ The prediction of the Chinese attack in February includes the prediction for a simultaneous "war of unification" between North and South Korea. ⁴¹ On April 22, 1999, a "thousand millions [sic] of human-devils" will initiate a mass slaughter in Chen Tao's "holy land" of Pei-pu, Taiwan. ⁴²

Chen then predicts a "Noah's Arc" flood of forty days will devastate Eastern Asia in June and July of 1999. ⁴³ The food shortages resulting from the flooding will ultimately lead Asians to commit cannibalism. ⁴⁴

The massive death caused by both war and flooding will greatly reduce the spiritual energy upon which the King Satan's can feed, driving the devils into an insane rage. The fallout will cause widespread destruction throughout east Asia. ⁴⁵ China and Japan will then ally to invade Australia and New Zealand, and will then conquer southeast Asia. ⁴⁶ European and African nations will join the war through territorial alliances, and all the nations will finally destroy each other at Armageddon. ⁴⁷ Only twenty percent of the world's population will survive the great tribulation. These survivors will once again board God's spaceship. ⁴⁸

The essence of god in the beliefs of Chen Tao can at times be complex. The god of Chen Tao "includes all beings; He has the inexhaustible, endless energy, and His energy is the original source of all existence and permeates everything�He is omnipresent, He is both in form and non-form". ⁴⁹ Chen rejects the biblical version of God as "cruel, narrow-minded, unable to tell good from evil". God is "void of I," because the "'Tao (Way) begets One; One begets Two; Two Begets Three; Three begets all existence.' The Way (tao) [sic] that begets One is the embodied God". ⁵⁰ This Taoist phrase indicates the close relation that Chen sees between God and himself. Simply stated, God created Chen (who identifies himself as "the One") ⁵¹ , who in turn came to earth as the Ju-lai Buddha with several Bodhisattvas to populate the earth. ⁵²

IV. Failed Prophecies

An intrical part of the Chen Tao belief system was Hon-ming Chen's prophecies. The fact that these prophecies failed plays a major role in the future of the group. The one thing that most prophecies have in common is that they never come true. ⁵³ At least this is true when prophecies are made in advance of an event. ⁵⁴ Chen's prophecies were made a year in advance giving the group more than enough time for preperation.

It has long been a common assumption charismatic leaders who made prophecies that have clearly failed will suffer a serious loss of followers. In fact, social scientists have accumulated a substantial body of knowledge that contradicts this conventional wisdom. More times than not, groups with failed prophecies not only continue, but sometimes thrive. ⁵⁵

Chen Tao certainly did not thrive after the unfulfilled prophecies; recieving frantic media attention concerning rumors of mass suicide. Membership of the group did suffer severly; dropping to about 30 members. But the members who did remain stayed faithful to Hon-ming Chen and his teachings.

Many of the members who left for forced to leaving having visa problems. Ultimately, leaders go on to make other prophecies, as in the case of Hon-ming Chen. The doctrine of Chen Tao was focused primarily around "end of the world" prophecies. Seeing this, there seems to be no reason why the future teachings of Chen would not include more prophecies. Just what direction these prophecies may take remains to be seen.

The methods used to make a prophecy also vary widely from a leader's hunch, or claim to a revelation directly from God, to a complicated interpretation of scripture. ⁵⁶

How do groups continue to grow despite false prophecies? Lorne Dawson of the University of Waterloo has recently completed a significant survey of the "failed prophecy" literature. He finds that while many groups do suffer a membership loss, most groups continue to survive and a few even grow. ⁵⁷

Dawson identifies three strategies groups use after a failed prophecy: ⁵⁸

1. Proselytizing: The group converts new members to compensate for the disappointment.

2. Rationalization: The group denies the failure with a plausible reinterpretation of events.

Four types of rationalization (or reinterpretation) :

Spiritualization: The event occurred, but on an invisible, spiritual level
Test of faith: The group proved their faith to the Lord and set an example for the world. Now they must prepare for the real event.
Human error: There was a misunderstanding, miscalculation, or moral inadequacy of its followers.
Blaming others: The followers did not do something properly or they took the prediction too literally. This is rare because it can often hurt a group.

3. Reaffirmation: Use the event as a challenge to act even more zealously. The group proved its devotion and vowed to become even stronger.

Dawson also presents a list of six things which may influence the adaptation strategy chosen:

The level of in-group social support. The more solidarity and communication, the better. Size helps, but coherence is more important.
Role of leadership. The quicker, more confident, and higher amount of charisma that the leader uses, the better.
Scope and sophistication of ideological system. The more complex the ideological system, the easier it is to explain the failure and therefore it is easier for the group to recover.
Nature of the prophecies and the actions they inspire. The more vague and less extreme, the better.
Role of ritual in experience. The more ritual, the better.
Organizational structures. Such things as size and structure probably has an effect, but little is known.

The frame work above can easily be used to interperate the acts of Chen after his prophecies failed. Ultimately, Chan admitted error in his prophecies taking "blame" for the false prophecies. But after his predictions did not occur, Chen reaffirmed the groups purpose and quickly relocated the members to Lockport, NY. Chen used this oppurtunity to challenge his group and reaffirm the devotion within his followers.

Links to Chen Tao Web Sites

Official Chen Tao Website

http://trueway-chentao.homepage.com

The Watchman Fellowship
The Watchman Fellowship, a counter-cult organization located in the Dallas-Fort Worth area, was among the first to indentify the new cult movement when it took up residence in Garland, Texas. The Watchman profile is well documented and is consistent with other reliable sources on Chen Tao. The beliefs section of this page utilizies valuable resouces available on The Watchman Fellowship page which we acknowledge with gratitude.
http://www.watchman.org/profile/chentaopro.htm

Watchman Expositor Profile

http://www.watchman.org/cults/godsalvationchurch.htm

Watchman Update's on Chen Tao
The Watchman Fellowship provide updates on the recent events of the Chen Tao to keep current information on the group. The site contains links to articles and updates on the group.
http://www.watchman.org/cults/index.htm

Cesnur's Watch Page of Chen Tao
CESNUR: Centro Studi sulle Nuove Religioni (Center for Studies of New Religions), is an independent Italian organization headed by Massimo Introvigne. CESNUR is a reliable resource for information on breaking news about cults and sects controversies. This site provides a comprehensive view of Chen Tao along with links to other CESNUR reports on the group.
http://www.cesnur.org/testi/Chen.htm

Tokyo Boardwalker
This site highlights five articles written on various aspects of Chen Tao. The site offers reports on the prophecies by Chen and also detailed news reports on the group. This site provides reading material on many aspects of the group. The page is not affiliated with any religious group.
http://members.tripod.com/~tokyoboardwalker/UFO-3.html

Channell One - Chen Tao
This site contains an article by Ryan Cook titled "Chen Toa Social Relations Summary". Ryan J. Cook is a graduate student in Anthropology at the University of Chicago. He has presented numerous papers on Chen Tao and presents himself as a good source for the interpretation and study of Chen Tao.
http://www.channel1.com/mpr/Articles/72-social.html

Chen Tao
This is a page created by Linda Glines and Bernard Punzet for a course entitled The Book of Revelation and Apocalyptic Literature at Loyala Maymount University; under the direction of Professor Felix Just, S.J.
http://clawww.lmu.edu/faculty/fjust/Students/ChenTao/main.html

Rick Ross
The anti-cultist Rick Ross is a internationally recognized consultant on religious cults. The Rick Ross homepage contains thousands of documents on cults and sects, which includes news stories, related articles, reports, letters, court records, book excerpts and personal testimonies. The site on Chen Tao contains news articles and links to other reports on the group.
http://www.rickross.com/groups/chen-tao.html

Tracenet News: Chen Tao
The Tracenet News group provides an anti-cult perspective on the beliefs and current events of cults and sects. The site contains a detailed overview of Chen Tao, followed by links to updates on the group.
http://www.trancenet.org/groups/gsc/index.shtml

Tiawan UFO Cult
Varies newspaper articles that provided updated material on Chen Tao. This page is also not affiliated with any religious organization.
http://members.tripod.com/~tokyoboardwalker/UFO.html

Links to Failed Prophecies Web Sites

False Prophecies
The Millennium Page was created by Christopher W.Smith, an undergraduate history major at the University as partial fulfillment of an independent research project in the Department ofSociology. The page also contains links to various pages concerning prophecies and the effects of the millennium on cults and sects. The false prophecies section of this page utilizies valuable resouces available on Mr. Smith's page which we acknowledge with gratitude.
http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/millennium/false.html

When Prophecies Fail
This site contains the article "When Prophecies Fail: A Sociological Perspective on Failed Expectation in the Watchtower Society" by Randall Watters. The article was printed in the Bethel Ministries Newsletter May/June 1990 (now the Free Minds Journal).
http://www.freeminds.org/psych/propfail.htm

End of the World Prophecies
The Religious Tolerance page works to promote religious tolerance and provide viewers with a sence of religious diversity. The page on "end of the world prophecies" gives detailed examples of prophecies as cults and sects move toward and through the millennium.
http://www.religioustolerance.org/end_wrld.htm

V. Bibliography

Bachman, Justin. 1998.: "Predictions are called 'nonsense'," Star-Telegram . (25 March).
Chen, Hon-ming. 1997.: God's Descending in Clouds (Flying Saucers) on Earth to Save People , Garland, TX: Privately published.
Chen, Hon-Ming. 1996.: The Practical Evidence and Study of the World of God and Buddha . Garland, TX: Privately published.
Cook, Ryan. 1999.: An Anthropologist's Perspective "Chen Tao in Texas: A new religious movement, it's host community, and mass-mediated adaptation." This paper was presented at CESNUR 99 meetings in Bryn Athyn, Pennsylvania. Mr. Cook is a graduate student in Anthropology at the University of Chicago.
Covert, James. 1997.: "Group believes God to appear here, save the world March 31," Garland News . (25 December).
Geier, Thom. 1998.: "Is there life after death for Heaven's Gate? a year after mass suicides, the cult carries on". US. News & World Report March 30, 1998 v124 n12 p32 (1)
Hylton, Hilary and Stephanie Low. 1998.: "Lone Star Loonies. (Taiwanese UFO cult in Texas)". Time International , March 30, 1998 v150 n31 p41(1)
Prather, Charles Houston. 1999.: "God's Salvation Church: Past, Present and Future." Marburg Journal of Religion . 4:1 (July).
Rogers. David D. 1998.: "God's Salvation Church Defined." Trancenet (26 March 1998): 4 pp. Online. Internet. (2 April).
Shaeffer, Robert. 1998.: "Apocalypse foiled again; UFOlogists shoot for the moon. (Chen Tao cult's prediction; Citzens Against UFP Secrecy)". Skeptical Inquirer , Sept-Oct 1998 v22 n5 p21(2)
Stephens, Paul. 1998.: "Is God Coming to Olcott?," Lockport Journal , (2 April).
Verhovek, Sam Howe. 1998.: "UFO cult waits for God in Texas town," New York Times , (5 March).
"Waiting for God. Oh.(members of Taiwanese church move to Garland, Texas to witness the appearance of God)". 1998.: The Economist (US), April 4, 1998 v346 n8062 p29(1)
Wright, Stuart A. 1998.: "Chen Tao: A Case Study in the Failure of Prophecy." Paper presented at the annual meetings of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, November 6-8, 1998, Montreal, Canada.

VI. References

James Covert, "Group believes God to appear here, save the world March 31," Garland News , 1997

Charles Houston Prather, "God's Salvation Church: Past, Present and Future." Marburg Journal of Religion

ibid

www.watchman.org/godsalvationchurch.htm

James Covert, "Group believes God to appear here, save the world March 31," Garland News , 1997

David D. Rogers, "God's Salvation Church Defined." Trancenet (26 March 1998)

Hon-Ming Chen, God's Descending on Clouds (Flying Saucers) to Save People. pp. 174-178

Sam Howe Verhovek, "UFO cult waits for God in Texas town," New York Times , 1998

Hon-Ming Chen, God's Descending on Clouds (Flying Saucers) to Save People. pp. 174-178

Charles Houston Prather, "God's Salvation Church: Past, Present and Future." Marburg Journal of Religion

ibid

Justin Bachman, "Predictions are called 'nonsense'," Star-Telegram Dallas Bureau , 1998

Charles Houston Prather, "God's Salvation Church: Past, Present and Future." Marburg Journal of Religion

ibid

Paul Stephens, "Is God Coming to Olcott?," Lockport Journal , 1998

ibid

www.watchman.org/godsalvationchurch.htm

Hon-Ming Chen, God's Descending on Clouds (Flying Saucers) to Save People. pg. 4

ibid pg. 11, 19

ibid pg. 17, 19

ibid pg. 27

ibid pg. 11, 19

ibid pg. 8, 18, 54

ibid pg. 62-64

ibid pg. 155

ibid pg. 142

ibid pg. 35-38

ibid pg. 39

ibid pg. 62-64

ibid pg. 62

ibid pg. 68

ibid pg. 70

ibid pg. 76

ibid pg. 46

ibid pg. 172

ibid pg. 143

ibid pg. 145

ibid pg. 115

ibid pg. 87

ibid pg. 115

ibid pg. 80

ibid pg. 132-133

ibid pg. 87

ibid pg. 115

ibid pg. 118-119

ibid pg. 119

www.watchman.org/godsalvationchurch.htm

Hon-Ming Chen, God's Descending on Clouds (Flying Saucers) to Save People. pg. 3

ibid pg. 8

ibid pg. 8-9, 175

ibid pg. 9

religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/millennium/false.html

ibid

Created by Willis Shawver
For Soc 257: New Religious Movements
Spring Term, 2000
University of Virginia
Last modified: 04/19/01